Teaching Material

Basic Optical Concepts

Refraction

Theory

Refraction is the blessing and the curse of microscopy.

Light travels at different speeds in different materials. It is fastest in vacuum with 299,792,458 meters per second. Slowing down when entering an optically more dense material, light gets deviated from its direction of travel. This is called refraction. The ratio n between the speed of light in vacuum (c) and that in the respective material (v) (n=c/v) is called refractive index. The refractive index is a bulk physical constant of that material. It is dependent on the temperature of the material and the energy (frequency) of the light waves traveling through.

Snell's law describes the relationship between refractive indices of two adjacent isotropic materials and angles of incidence of light traveling through the boundary between the two:

$$sin(a1) / sin(a2) = n2 / n1$$

Hands-on: Refraction I - Laser into Waterbath

Concept demonstrated

Demonstrate how light gets refracted at the interface of two different media.

Materials

clear waterbath with a 360° protractor on its back wall (self made or eg. from Pierron)
different laser pointers
clear water
darkish room

Practical Setup

Fill bath with water so that half the protractor is under water.
One student (or teacher) shoots a laser pointer into the water.
Laser beam needs to be parallel to protractor surface.
Another student may read incident and exit angle.
Why is the angle of light changing?
What will happen if you change wavelength of laser?

Warning: do NOT point laser towards students!

Idea/Implementation

Humberto Ibarra Avila, Britta Schroth-Diez

Image of a transparent water tank with a measuring scale partially submerged in the water. A beam of laser light enters the tank from the air and bends as it passes into the water, demonstrating refraction. The laser changes direction at the air-water interface, illustrating how light slows down and shifts its path when moving from air into water. The setup visually explains the principle of light refraction and the measurement of angles using the submerged scale in physics experiments

Hands-on: Refraction II - Coin in Cup

Concept demonstrated

Demonstrates how changes in refractive index change perception.

Materials

a cup with a small coin glued to it's bottom
a beaker with water

Practical Setup

Students stand in front of the cup such that they just do not see the coin anymore
Teacher slowly fills the cup with water
What will the students see?

Idea/Implementation

Peter Pitrone

Hands-on: Refraction III - Refractive Index Match and Missmatch

Concept demonstrated

Demonstrates that refractive index matters.

Materials

A small glass bottle half-filled with immersion oil
Two similar looking glass capillaries:
- One open at both sides - liquid can enter
- One closed at one side - no liquid can enter

Practical Setup

Show glass bottle to students
Explains that the immersion oil has the same refractive index as glass
Briefly show the two glass capillaries, ideally so that they appear to be the same
Slowly dip the two capillaries into the immersion oil
Why does one capillary seem to disappear in the oil while the other does not?
What is the implication of differences in refractive index in imaging biological samples?
How can one reduce changes in refractive index in biological samples to improve imaging results?

Idea/Implementation

Image illustrating light refraction with a half-filled bottle of water. Two pipettes stand upright in the bottle: one is filled with water and becomes nearly invisible underwater due to the matching refractive index, while the other pipette is filled with air and remains clearly visible.

Ray Optics

Theory

Hands-on: Ray Optics

The image shows an enlarged, stylized cross-section of a camera. On the left side, several parallel red laser beams are projected from the left and pass through a transparent block, representing the convex lens of the camera. After passing through this block the beams meet at a single spot on a vertical dashed line, representing the camera chip.

The image shows an enlarged, stylized cross-section of a human eye. On the left side, several parallel red laser beams are projected from the left and pass through a transparent block, representing the convex lens of an eye. After passing through this block the beams enter a circular area representing the eye. All beams meet at a single spot on the right side within the eye outline.

Image showing a physics experiment setup with parallel red laser beams passing through an optical diagram resembling a human eye with glasses. The beams first encounter a thin convex lens representing teh glasses, which bends the rays slightly inward toward a focal point. After the convex lens, the rays pass through a second convex lens representing the eye lens which focuses the beams on the retina of the eye. This arrangement demonstrates how an additional lense can correct defects of the human eye.

Image showing a protractor with degree markings, placed above a semicircular transparent block. A single red laser beam enters the block from the top at an angle, bends as it passes through the flat surface of the transparent material, and exits at the bottom. The change in direction of the light beam demonstrates the principle of refraction, where light changes speed and angle when passing from air into a different medium. The protractor is used to measure the angle of incidence and refraction, helping to illustrate Snell's law and the study of optical behavior.

Image showing a physics experiment setup with parallel red laser beams passing through an optical diagram resembling a lens system. The beams first encounter a convex lens, which bends the rays inward toward a focal point. After the convex lens, the rays pass through a concave lens element and exit the setup as parallel beams. This arrangement demonstrates how a combination of lenses can direct, converge, or re-collimate light rays, illustrating key concepts of geometric optics and light manipulation in educational experiments.

Image showing a physics experiment setup with several parallel red laser beams passing through a diagram of an optical instrument, such as a telescope. The beams first encounter a convex lens, causing them to converge toward a focal point. After the focal point, the beams pass through additional optical elements, including another lens, and exit the setup as parallel or nearly parallel lines. The arrangement demonstrates how lenses focus and direct light rays, illustrating fundamental principles of geometric optics and light path manipulation in optical systems.

Image of an open case displaying a selection of optical lenses arranged for educational experiments. The case includes convex and concave lenses, each designed to demonstrate different effects such as focusing, spreading, and bending light rays. These lenses allow students and teachers to explore key concepts of geometric optics, including refraction, image formation, and magnification. The organized presentation helps illustrate how lenses shape and direct light for applications in science and everyday technology.

Conjugate Planes

Theory

Peter Evennett course at MPI CBG LMF

Hands-on: Optical Bench I - Conjugate Planes

Concept demonstrated

Demonstrates the essential parts of a microscope and explains the concept of conjugate planes: What are the key elements? Where is the back focal plane and what can you see there? Where is the primary image formed?

Materials

A bench with the ability to host several optical elements, in our case:

light source (with filament)
collector lens
field diaphragm
condenser aperture diaphragm
condenser front lens
sample holder and sample
objective lens
eyepiece lens

Parts can be purchased from Qioptiq (fromer Linos), Thorlabs, Newport

Practical Setup

students stand around bench while teacher explaines

Then let them find the different optical planes themselves:

Use a sheet of paper to find back focal plane and primary image plane
Can they see the image of the sample by sitting down and looking through the eyepiece? (you know it, when they are able to describe the sample (an arrow? a smiley?) accurately)

Warning: mind to not power up the light source too much

Idea/Implementation

Kurt Anderson, Jan Peychl

The image shows five optical components arranged in a row on a black surface. Each component is mounted on an adjustable gray stand with an orange knob. From left to right, the components are: a large circular lens/mirror assembly, a square dichroic mirror/filter, a smaller circular convex lens, another square lens/filter, and a small black light source module. The stands are attached to a long black base, and the setup is positioned against a light gray wall.

The image displays an optical setup featuring six distinct components arranged linearly on a black surface. Each component is mounted on an adjustable stand with an orange knob. From left to right, the components include a large lens/mirror assembly, a square dichroic mirror/filter, a smaller convex lens, another square lens/filter, and finally a light source module.

The image displays a setup of multiple optical components arranged in a straight line on a black table. Each component is mounted on a sturdy metal base and held upright by vertical rods. The devices include several black frames with circular openings (likely optical apertures or diaphragms), one large round glass lens, and smaller lenses or glass elements positioned between the frames. Several orange knobs are used for tightening or adjusting the mounts. The overall setup is precise and organized, resembling equipment used for physics experiments with light, such as a demonstration of lenses or an optics bench.

Wave Optics

Theory

Masters course at Biotec/CRTD LMF

Hands-on: Ripple Tank

Concept demonstrated

How do (optical) waves spread? How do they interact with each other?

Materials

Practical Setup

Idea/Implementation

Image of a ripple tank, a shallow transparent tray filled with water used to study wave behavior. The tank shows waves generated on the water surface, illustrating phenomena such as reflection, refraction, diffraction, and interference. Light shining through or above the water enhances the visibility of wave patterns.

Image of a ripple tank, a shallow transparent tray filled with water used to study wave behavior.

Diffraction

Theory

Hands-on: Diffraction Demo

Concept demonstrated

Demonstrated how different wavelengths of light are scattered by differently sized objects.

Materials

You can use anything that has a mesh with a small enough grating to show the effect of differently sized object features. In our case we use
- sieves ("Sortiersiebe") with two different gratings (eg. 106 and 130μm)
- dia-slides each with both a coarse and a fine grating (have them printed directly for this purpose)
a pointy light source
a dark room

Practical Setup

each student gets his/her own diffraction gratings
teacher holds light
students observe and discuss with teacher different aspects of diffraction: How do the different wavelength behave? What is the effect of a smaller/bigger gratings? What does this mean translated into a microscope?

Idea/Implementation

Peter Evennett, Humberto Ibarra Avila, Britta Schroth-Diez

The image shows a close-up of a rectangular object held between fingers against a plain light background. The object is a dia slide with a gray frame and a black center. In the center of the slide, there are several horizontal bands: the topmost band has fine vertical lines or stripes, and below it are several solid gray sections ranging from light to dark. The letter "C" is marked in the upper right corner, and "F" is in the lower left.

This image shows a mostly black background with several bright points of white light near the center. The light sources are very close to each other, and each emits several thin, straight lines spreading horizontally, which makes a star-like effect. Around these lines, there are faint colored strips—mainly green and red—which create a subtle rainbow effect extending from the bright points. The rest of the image is dark, and the lights stand out sharply in the center.

This image shows a mostly black background with two bright points of white light near the center. The light sources are very close to each other, and each emits several thin, straight lines spreading horizontally, which makes a star-like effect. Around these lines, there are faint colored strips—mainly green and red—which create a subtle rainbow effect extending from the two bright points. The rest of the image is dark, and the lights stand out sharply in the center.

The image depicts a dazzling burst of light against a completely black background. It appears to be a photograph taken looking directly at a very bright light source, possibly a street lamp or a bright bulb. The light source is located in the center of the frame, and its rays radiate outwards in all directions, creating a starburst effect. The rays are multicolored, displaying a spectrum of colors including red, orange, yellow, green, blue, and purple, although the dominant colors seem to be red, green, and blue. The intensity of the light is so high that it creates lens flares and diffraction spikes, adding to the complexity and brilliance of the image. The overall impression is one of intense brightness and vibrant color against a stark, dark void.

The image shows two identical metal strainers or sieves placed side-by-side on a white surface. Each strainer is round with a slightly raised rim and a handle extending upwards from the side. The mesh inside the strainers is fine and made of thin, silvery wire, creating a pattern of small, evenly spaced holes. The metal of the frame and handle appears to be stainless steel or a similar shiny metal. The background is a plain white surface, providing high contrast with the metal objects. The overall composition is simple, focusing on the texture and form of the strainers.

Numerical Aperture

Theory

Hands-on: What is Numerical Aperture? Milky Glass Block Demo

Concept demonstrated

Demonstrates the effect of both objective and condenser Numerical Aperture.

Materials

upright stand (for better visibility of objectives)
microscope stand w/o stage (for more space)
milky glass block
ideally condenser with manual aperture diaphragm
two transmitted light light sources (eg. Halogen lamps or white LEDs) ... one for the TL port, one for the RL port
two differently coloured filters (to better distinguish top and bottom light), one in either (transmitted and reflected) beam path

Practical Setup

Teacher demonstrates and explains while students stand around setup watching.
Students might than also try to change aperture size and objectives.

Idea/Implementation

Peter Evennett, Jan Peychl

The image shows the internal components of a microscope. The focus is on the stage area where a sample would be placed. A rectangular, transparent block, possibly made of glass or plastic, is positioned on the stage. The block is illuminated from below by a bright green light source, causing the entire block to glow green. The microscope's stage, objective lenses, and other mechanical parts are visible, painted in white and gray. The background is dark, highlighting the illuminated green block within the microscope's structure.

The image shows a close-up view of a scientific setup, possibly a microscope, with a rectangular, transparent block resting on a reflective surface. A bright green light is emanating from the bottom of the block, shining upwards through it. The light creates a distinct, vertical green line that extends upwards in a wide angle.

Hands-on: Numerical Aperture Measurements

Concept demonstrated

Demonstrates the effect of the Numerical Aperture of an objective. Opportunity to practice some calculations around resolutions and NA.

Materials

pointy light source
a stand with a horizontal 180° Protractor
a stand with a mount for an objective at the same height as the protractor stand
two air objectives with as different NAs as possible
a calculator

Practical Setup

Start by mounting the objective with the lower NA.
Let one student hold the light source onto the protractor at 0° (in a straight line with the objective)
another student sits behind the objective and tries to see the light through the objective. Make sure the student finds the best possible focus point.
Then let the first student move the lamp slowly (!) around one side of the protractor.
The second student says "stop" as soon as the light moves out of his (the objective's) field of view.
Mark the angle on the protractor.
Switch to the higher NA objective and repeat steps above.
The clear difference in the size of the field of view of the different NA objectives is usually quite impressive by itself.
Also, from the angles, let the students calculate backwards to the NA ... does it match the number written on the objective?
Taking the NA, let the students calculate the resolution of both objectives for a given wavelength ... discuss the difference.
With the objectives at hand (ie. air objectives) what is the highest resolution obtainable (taking a again a wavelength in the middle visible range)? What would one have to do in order to reach better resolutions?

Idea/Implementation

Humberto Ibarra Avila, Silke White

The image shows a scientific experiment involving two people. On the left, a woman is looking closely through a small cylindrical device mounted on a vertical stand, as if observing something through a lens. In front of her, horizontally placed, is a sheet of paper or plastic printed with a large semicircular protractor marked in degrees from 0 to 360 at regular intervals. To the right, another person’s hand holds a small flashlight or laser pointer, directing a narrow beam of light onto the protractor near the 220-degree mark.

The image is dominated by a large metallic disc positioned centrally in the foreground, seen head-on so that its perfectly round shape fills much of the frame. In the middle of the disc is a black circular opening, which appears to be the lens or aperture of an optical device. Through this central opening, some light is visible, creating small reflections. To the right side of the image, a person’s arm is extended, partly visible and slightly out of focus against a bright background. The scene is set indoors, with windows and daylight visible in the background, and a dark cloth or surface beneath the disc.

Contrasting Techniques

Introduction to Contrasting Techniques

Summary of Contrasting Techniques

Brightfield

Theory

pdf

Darkfield

Theory

Phase Contrast

Theory

Polarization

Theory

Hands-on: Birefrigence

Concept demonstrated

Demonstrates the impact of materials with two different refractive indices.

Materials

calcite block
piece of paper with black dot on it

Practical Setup

if you have several calcite blocks, give each (group of) student one.
if you have only one calcite block, take an overhead projector to present
draw a black dot on a piece of paper and put the calcite block on top of it, then rotate it above the dot. What happens? Why?

Idea/Implementation

Peter Evennett

Image of a transparent calcite crystal resting on a printed text, causing the letters beneath to appear doubled. This optical effect, known as birefringence or double refraction, occurs when the calcite splits incoming light into two rays, making everything viewed through the crystal look as if it is duplicated. The phenomenon demonstrates the unique optical property of calcite, often used for educational purposes to illustrate light refraction and polarization.

Hands-on: Polarization

Concept demonstrated

Demonstrates how polarizers block out light and what happens when birefrigent objects get inbetween.

Materials

a bigger, flat light source
two sheets of polarizers for each student (alternatively only one polarizer for each student and an already polarized light source (eg a computer screen))
gummibears
rulers
calcite blocks
other birefrigent objects

Practical Setup

each student can hold his/her polarizer(s) in front of the light source and rotate the polarizer(s). What happens?
then let them take a biregringent object and put it inbetween the polarizers ... observe what happens. Why?

Idea/Implementation

Peter Evennett, Humberto Ibarra Avila, Britta Schroth-Diez

DIC - Differential Interference Contrast

Theory

Fluorescence Microscopy

Theory

Fluorescence

Fluorescence microscopy

Hands-on: Fluorescent Bottles

Concept demonstrated

Demonstrates the concept of fluorescence absorption and emission.

Materials

clear plastic or glass bottles
laser pointers with different wavelengths
different solutions of fluorescent liquid. In our case: tonic water (quinine), solution of alexa fluor 488 carboxylic acid, solution of alexa fluor 633 carboxylic acid (eg. from Invitrogen)

Practical Setup

stand bottle with prepared solutions in a line in front of a white background
teacher shines (405 nm?) laser beam from the opposite side through the bottles
students observe the colours (ie. absorption and emission properties of the different solutions) by looking perpendicular onto the setup.

Warning: do NOT point laser towards students!

Idea/Implementation

Ruth Hans

Image of a green laser beam passing sequentially through three bottles containing different liquids. The liquid in the first bottle closest to the laser displays red fluorescence, the liquid in the middle bottle shows green fluorescence, and the liquid in the last bottle exhibits no fluorescence. This setup demonstrates how distinct substances can emit different colors of fluorescent light when excited by the same laser, illustrating the principle of laser-induced fluorescence and energy conversion in various materials.

Image of a violet laser beam passing sequentially through three bottles containing different liquids. The liquid in the first bottle closest to the laser displays red fluorescence, the liquid in the middle bottle shows green fluorescence, and the liquid in the last bottle exhibits bright blue fluorescence. This setup demonstrates how distinct substances can emit different colors of fluorescent light when excited by the same laser, illustrating the principle of laser-induced fluorescence and energy conversion in various materials.

Advanced Imaging Techniques

Laser Scanning Microscopy

Theory

Peter Evennett course at MPI CBG LMF

Multiphoton Microscopy

Theory

Peter Evennett course at MPI CBG LMF

Hands-on: Laser Tissue Scattering

Concept demonstrated

Demonstrates the penetration depth of different wavelength.

Materials

laser pointers with different wavelengths
your finger
a dark room

Practical Setup

The teacher holds laser pointer onto his finger in clear view of students and "shoots" different wavelengths through.
Which one can students still see on the other side of the finger?

Warning: do NOT point laser towards students!

Idea/Implementation

Peter Pitrone

The image shows a close-up of a person's fingertip being touched by a small, cylindrical device that emits a red light. The device is small and cylindrical, with a metallic finish. It has a yellow label with black text, though the text is not legible. A red light is emitted from the tip of the device, illuminating the fingertip.

The image is a close-up shot of a person holding a small, cylindrical device that emits a bright red laser light. The device is a small, black cylinder. A bright, focused red laser beam is emanating from the end of the cylinder. The red laser light is slightly shining through the finger at the end of the laser pointer.

The image is a close-up shot of a person holding a small, cylindrical device that emits a bright green laser light. The device is a small, black cylinder. A bright, focused green laser beam is emanating from the end of the cylinder.

The image is a close-up shot of a person holding a small, cylindrical device that emits a bright purple laser light. The device is a small, black cylinder with a white band near the top. A bright, focused purple laser beam is emanating from the end of the cylinder.

Spinning Disc Microscopy

Theory

Peter Evennett course at MPI CBG LMF

Hands-on: Optical Bench III - Spinning Disc

Concept demonstrated

Materials

Practical Setup

Idea/Implementation

Light Sheet Microscopy

Theory

Peter Evennett course at MPI CBG LMF

Hands-on: Light Sheet

Concept demonstrated

Demonstrates how a light sheet illuminates a sample.

Materials

glass block with etched in 3D Image (in our case: a brain)
a laser "pointer" that creates a light sheet (eg. from Picotronic/Laser Fuchs)
darkened room

Practical Setup

stand glass block on blackish surface or hold it up
shine light sheet laser pointer through the glass block

Warning: do NOT point laser towards students!

Idea/Implementation

Olaf Selchow (Carl Zeiss Microsystems)

The image shows a transparent acrylic cube. Inside the cube, there’s a white 3D-engraved model of a human brain. A laser beam creates a visible red line through the cube, illuminating part of the brain design. The cube is placed on a black surface.

A small black laser pointer or pen is placed above a transparent acrylic cube. Inside the cube, there’s a white 3D-engraved model of a human brain. The laser beam creates a visible red line through the cube, illuminating part of the brain design. The cube is placed on a black surface.

The image shows a person holding a small black laser pointer or pen above a transparent acrylic cube. Inside the cube, there’s a white 3D-engraved model of a human brain. The laser beam creates a visible red line through the cube, illuminating part of the brain design. The cube is placed on a black surface.

The Devil is in the Details

Depth of Field and Depth of Focus

Hands-on: Depth of Field and Depth of Focus

Concept demonstrated

Show students how to properly align their microscope for parfocality by teaching them the concepts of depth of field and depth of focus.

Materials

Any microscope with adjustable eyepieces and several different magnification (air) objectives will do. For demonstration purposes, a stereoscope/microscope with a continuos magnification changer and adjustable eyepieces is most suitable.

Practical Setup

The students stand around the demo-microscope while teacher explains and shows how to set the microscope up for proper parfocality. Then they should repeat on their student microscopes (or in turn on the demo set up).

How to:

Go to the highest magnification and focus using the focus the sample using the focus knob of the microscope (Depth of Field).
Then change to the lowest magnification and DO NOT touch the focus knob anymore. The image should now be brought back into focus by adjusting the eypieces one after the other (Depth of Focus).
Take care to always leave both eyes open for optimal results! If you have troubles concentrating on the image of one eypiece with the other eye open, simply hold a piece of paper above the not used eypiece.
You should now have achived parfocality, meaning as you change magnifications the sample should stay in focus.

Idea/Implementation

Peter Evennett, Jan Peychl

Photo of a person looking through a stereomicroscope adjusting the focus.

Photo of a person looking through a stereomicroscope adjusting the oculars.

Objective Reading

Theory

Overview of key microscope objective parameters with explanation and color coding. Parameters include magnification, numerical aperture (NA), working distance, resolution, and field of view.

Hands-on: Objective Reading

Concept demonstrated

Most students have no idea what all those numbers on microscope objectives stand for. The idea is to present them with a range of different objectives and help them understand them.

Materials

A range of different objectives: different vendors, magnifications, NAs, working distance, contrasting methods, immersion method, coverslip thickness, working distance etc.
Have at least enough objectives so that each student has one.

Practical Setup

The students get one objective each and are told to study it for a couple of minutes.
They are then to introduce their objectives one by one to the rest of the group, explaining all it's features with the help and by discussing with teacher and the other students.

Idea/Implementation

Peter Evennett, Britta Schroth-Diez, Silke White

Photo of a series of microscope objectives of various types and designs. The objectives differ in magnification, size, and optical corrections, including achromatic, plan-achromatic, and apochromatic types. Some objectives are finite-corrected, others infinite-corrected. The photo illustrates the diverse components used for producing magnified images in light microscopy, highlighting the complexity and specialization of microscope optics

Digital Image Sampling

Theory

Peter Evennett course at MPI CBG LMF

Hands-on: Digital Image Sampling

Concept demonstrated

Helps students to get an idea of pixel sizes, resolution and the correct sampling.

Materials

for each student:

several checkered sheet of paper/cardboard (every sheet showing differently sized squares)
differently sized "samples": eg. sesame seed, sunflower seeds, gummibears,..

Practical Setup

students "throw" the samples on the sheets of paper
discuss with which sizes of squares they can "resolve" which of the samples.
How does that translate into digital microscopy?
discuss different scenarios: Can you resolve the biggest samples (eg Gummibears) with the smallest squares chequered board? Yes. But is that a good idea?
Which other parameters next to resolution should you consider?

Idea/Implementation

Dan White, Britta Schroth-Diez, Jan Peychl

Show and Tell

The idea here is clear: any concept is better explained with the feature of interest to look at and to touch.
You can basically use anything you can get your hands on: merchandising articles, broken equipment, special presentation equipment from the companies, ...
In our case we use for example:

objective cut in half
Show them the intact side first and let them guess of how many lenses such an objective consist. This usually puts quite some emphasize on the sentence “Handle your objective with care”
special ruler from Newport (Spectra Physics) called “Photon Tamer rules space and time”
How fast does light really travel? May give a better understanding of the distance that (2photon laser-) light pulses really travel.
camera chip set in a paper weight block
burned/disfigured mercury lamp bulbs
broken laser tubes
broken shutters

Photo of a microscope objective cut in half. The arrangement of the various lenses inside the objective is visible

Photo of a scanning mirror of a lascer scanning microscope is shown. A tiny mirror on much bigger holder is visible.

Two filter wheels used in fluorescence microscopy, each containing multiple optical filters inside. These filter wheels allow rapid and precise selection of excitation and emission wavelengths by rotating different filters into the optical path.

Photograph of a Helium-Neon laser tube. The label on the tube displays manufacturer information and specifications.

Photograph of a Helium-Neon laser tube with its optical fiber. The label on the tube displays manufacturer information and specifications.

Close-up image of a laser diode equipped with two tiny optical prisms attached.

Close-up image of a laser diode. The label shows the different parameters of the laser.

Photo of emission mirrors of a laser scanning microscope. Two mirrors attached to a black holder are visible.

Photo of a microscope shutter. A black thin metal plate that can be moved to open or close the light path in a microscope.

Photo of three used mercury arch lamp light bulbs. The glass of the bulbs has visible distortions and spots of vaporized mercury.

Photo of a microscope z-drive. Metal part that makes up the mechanical or motorized focusing mechanism.

Photo of a specialized measuring device, resembling a ruler, designed to measure the speed of light. The device includes a precisely marked scale used to determine the distance (in centimeters) light travels in a given time (in pico seconds).

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